What is Philosophy of Religion?
The philosophy of religion is the rational study of the concepts, beliefs, and practices underlying religious traditions. It is distinct from theology in that it does not assume the truth of a particular revelation; instead, it uses the tools of logic, metaphysics, and epistemology to evaluate religious claims. One of the most central questions in the field is: Can the existence of God be proven or justified through reason alone?
In the Western tradition, “God” is typically defined as the “OMNI-God”: Omniscient (all-knowing), Omnipotent (all-powerful), and Omnibenevolent (perfectly good). Philosophers have developed several famous “theistic proofs” to establish the existence of such a being.
The Ontological Argument
The Ontological Argument is unique because it is a priori—it attempts to prove God’s existence through the definition of God alone, without recourse to sensory experience.
Anselm’s Formulation
St. Anselm of Canterbury (11th century) defined God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.” He argued:
- God exists in our understanding (conceptually).
- It is greater to exist in reality than to exist only in the understanding.
- Therefore, if God exists only in the understanding, we can conceive of a greater being (one that exists in reality).
- But God is the greatest conceivable being.
- Therefore, God must exist in reality.
Criticisms
- Gaunilo’s Island: Anselm’s contemporary, Gaunilo, argued that this logic could prove the existence of a “Perfect Island,” which is absurd.
- Kant’s Objection: Immanuel Kant famously argued that “existence is not a predicate.” Adding “exists” to a concept doesn’t change what the concept is (one hundred possible thalers have the same properties as one hundred real thalers), so existence cannot be a “perfection” that completes the definition of God.
The Cosmological Argument
The Cosmological Argument is a posteriori—it begins with an observation about the world (that it exists or is changing) and reasons back to a necessary cause.
Aquinas’s Five Ways
St. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) proposed several versions:
- Motion: Everything in the world is in motion. Motion requires a mover. There cannot be an infinite regress of movers. Therefore, there must be a First Mover (God).
- Causality: Every effect has a cause. Nothing can cause itself. There must be a First Cause (God).
- Contingency: Everything in the world is “contingent” (it could have not existed). If everything were contingent, at one point nothing would have existed. But something exists now. Therefore, there must be a “Necessary Being” whose existence is not dependent on anything else.
Criticisms
- Infinite Regress: Why must we stop the chain? Why can’t the universe be infinite in time?
- The “Gap” Problem: Even if there is a first cause, why must it be the OMNI-God of religion? Could it not be a natural event like the Big Bang?
The Teleological Argument (Argument from Design)
The Teleological Argument looks at the order, complexity, and apparent purpose (telos) in the universe.
Paley’s Watchmaker
William Paley (18th century) used a famous analogy: If you find a watch on a heath, its intricate design implies a designer. Similarly, the complexity of the human eye or the solar system implies a cosmic designer.
Fine-Tuning
A modern version of this argument suggests that the fundamental constants of physics (like the strength of gravity) are so precisely calibrated for life that it is astronomically improbable they occurred by chance.
Criticisms
- Hume’s Critique: David Hume argued that the analogy is weak. The universe is more like an organism than a machine. Furthermore, even if there is a designer, the presence of flaws (like “bad” biological design) suggests the designer might be incompetent or indifferent.
- Evolution: Darwin’s theory of natural selection provided a non-theistic explanation for the appearance of design in biology, showing how complexity can arise from simple processes over time.
Faith and Reason
Some philosophers, like Blaise Pascal and Søren Kierkegaard, argue that God’s existence cannot be proven by reason. Pascal’s “Wager” suggests it is practically rational to believe in God because the potential reward (infinite bliss) outweighs any cost. Kierkegaard argued that a “leap of faith” is necessary, as objective certainty would destroy the nature of religious commitment.