Virtue Ethics and Aristotelianism

The Resurgence of Virtue Ethics

While Deontology focuses on duties and Utilitarianism focuses on consequences, Virtue Ethics focuses on the character of the person acting. Instead of asking “What should I do?”, it asks “What kind of person should I be?”

This approach was the dominant ethical framework of the ancient world, particularly in the work of Aristotle. In the 20th century, it saw a major resurgence (led by philosophers like Elizabeth Anscombe and Alasdair MacIntyre) as a response to the perceived “dryness” of modern rule-based ethics.

Eudaimonia: The Goal of Life

Aristotle begins his Nicomachean Ethics with a simple question: What is the “highest good” for humans? Most things we seek (money, fame, health) are tools to get something else. The only thing we seek for its own sake is Eudaimonia.

Often translated as “happiness,” Eudaimonia is more accurately described as “human flourishing,” “thriving,” or “living well.” It is not a fleeting emotion or a state of mind, but a way of being—a life lived to its fullest potential through the exercise of reason.

Ergon: The Function Argument

To understand what it means for a human to flourish, Aristotle looks at our “function” (ergon).

• A “good” knife is one that cuts well.
• A “good” plant is one that grows and reproduces well.
• What is the unique function of a human? It is our ability to use reason.

Therefore, a “good” human is one who uses reason excellently. Living excellently in accordance with reason is what Aristotle calls Virtue (Arete).

The Doctrine of the Golden Mean

What exactly is a virtue? Aristotle defines virtue as a point of balance between two extremes: a Deficiency and an Excess. This is known as the Golden Mean.

Virtue is not a mathematical midpoint; it depends on the situation. Courage for a soldier in battle looks different than courage for a shy person speaking in public. A virtuous person has the Phronesis (practical wisdom) to know how to act in any given context.

Habitation: How We Become Virtuous

One of the most important insights of virtue ethics is that you cannot become virtuous just by reading a book or memorizing a rule. Virtue is a habit (hexis).

Aristotle argues: “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”

• You become brave by doing brave acts.
• You become generous by giving.

Over time, these actions shape your character until doing the “right” thing becomes second nature and actually brings you pleasure.

Intellectual vs. Moral Virtues

Aristotle divides virtues into two categories:

1. Intellectual Virtues: Developed through teaching and study (wisdom, scientific knowledge, technical skill).
2. Moral Virtues: Developed through habit and practice (justice, temperance, fortitude).

For Aristotle, the highest form of human life is the “contemplative life”—using our highest faculty (reason) to understand the highest truths of the universe.

Criticisms of Virtue Ethics

1. Lack of Specific Guidance: If someone is facing a complex moral dilemma (like whether to use stem cells for research), saying “do what a virtuous person would do” isn’t very helpful. It doesn’t provide a clear decision-making procedure.
2. Circular Reasoning: We define a virtuous act as what a virtuous person would do, but we define a virtuous person as someone who performs virtuous acts.
3. Cultural Relativism: What counts as a “virtue” varies wildly between cultures. A Viking’s “virtues” were very different from a Buddhist monk’s “virtues.” Is there really a universal set of human virtues?

Conclusion: The Ethics of Self-Actualization

Virtue Ethics is powerful because it addresses the whole person, not just isolated actions. it recognizes that emotions, desires, and relationships are all part of the moral life. By striving for the Golden Mean and seeking Eudaimonia, we don’t just “follow rules”—we embark on a lifelong journey of self-improvement and flourishing.